Intergroup Emotions Theory (IET)

We (Eliot Smith, Indiana University and Diane Mackie, UC, Santa Barbara) developed Intergroup Emotions Theory (IET) to show that intergroup relations can best be understood in terms of the motivating forces elicited by emotions that group members feel about their own and other groups. We argue that self-categorization determines these emotional responses, especially for highly identified group members, and that those emotions then determine the way groups behave. IET’s emphasis on social emotions in intergroup relations is provocative in a number of ways: you can learn more about IET in these selected readings, and more about our current programs of research in the selected readings below:

Mackie, D.M., Smith, E.R. & Ray, D.G. (2008). Intergroup emotions and intergroup relations. Personality and Social Psychology Compass, 2, 1866-1880.

Mackie, D.M. & Smith, E.R. (2014). Intergroup Emotions. In J. Dovidio & J. Simpson (Eds.) APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology (Volume II: Interpersonal Relationships and Group Processes, pp. 263-294). APA Press.

Antecedents of intergroup emotions

According to IET, people experience different emotions depending on whether they see themselves as unique individuals or members of a group, and they experience different emotions when thinking about themselves as members of different groups. Individuals differ in their identification with any particular in-group and thus they differ in their experience of intergroup emotions. Intergroup emotions are shaped by intergroup appraisals, the very different ways in which groups see the world, and they come, through emotional self-stereotyping, to be part and parcel of group membership itself.

Smith, E.R., Seger, C. R., & Mackie, D.M. (2007) Can emotions be truly group level? Evidence for four conceptual criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 431-446.

Seger, C., R., Smith, E.R., & Mackie, D.M. (2009). Subtle activation of a social categorization triggers group-level emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 460-467.

Moons, W.G., Leonard, D.J., Mackie, D.M., & Smith, E.R. (2009).  I feel our pain: Antecedents and consequences of emotional self-stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 760-769.

 The nature of intergroup emotions

IET assumes that intergroup emotions can be acute or chronic, and can be directed at any object or event that has relevance for group well-being. We also assume that emotions felt on behalf of the group have physiological and processing consequences just as individually-experienced emotions do. Work on intergroup emotions has highlighted similarities and differences between group-based and individually-felt emotions.

Rydell, R.J., Mackie, D.M., Maitner, A.T., Claypool, H.M., Ryan, M.J., Smith, E.R. (2008). Arousal, processing, and risk taking: Consequences of Intergroup Anger. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1141-1152.

Smith, E.R., & Mackie, D.M. (in press). Dynamics of group-based emotions: Insights from Intergroup Emotion Theory. Emotion Review. 

Intergroup emotions and behavior

By far the most important consequence of intergroup emotions is that specific intergroup emotions produce specific action tendencies. Because intergroup emotions are group-level, intergroup emotions presumably have a privileged relationship with group-based behaviors. In addition, intergroup emotions regulate intergroup behavior, just as individual emotions regulate individual behavior.

Maitner, A. T., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2006). Evidence for the regulatory function of intergroup emotion: Implementing and impeding intergroup behavioral intentions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 720-726.

Maitner, A. T., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2007). Antecedents and consequences of satisfaction and guilt following in-group aggression. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 225-239.

Leonard, D.J., Mackie, D.M., Moons, W.G., & Smith, E.R. (2011). We’re mad as hell and we’re not going to take it any more. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 14, 99-111.

Leonard, D. J., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2011). Emotional responses to intergroup apology mediate intergroup forgiveness and retribution. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 1198-1206.
 

Intergroup emotions and prejudice

Understanding intergroup emotions also suggests strategies to help reduce prejudice. For example, the positive benefit of intergroup contact derives not from learning about outgroups but from coming to feel particular emotions toward them. IET also suggests that changing perceivers’ salient group memberships should change emotions, and perhaps prejudice toward outgroups. If so, interventions like cross categorization that rely on making different group memberships salient might also gain their effectiveness from changes in intergroup emotions.

Miller, D.A., Smith, E.R., & Mackie, D.M. (2004). Effects of intergroup contact and political predispositions on prejudice: Role of Intergroup Emotions. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 7, 221-237.

Ray, D.G., Mackie, D.M., Rydell, R.J., Smith, E.R. (2008) Changing categorization of self can change emotions about outgroups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1210-1213.

Ray, D.G., Mackie, D.M., Smith, E.R., & Terman, A.W. (2012). Discrete emotions elucidate the effects of crossed-categorization on prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 55-69.

Ray, D. G., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2014).  Intergroup emotion: Self-categorization, emotion, and the regulation of intergroup conflict. In C. von Scheve & M. Salmeda (Eds.) Collective Emotions (pp.235-250). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

In-group directed emotions and identification

IET argues that emotions that group members feel toward other groups guide their behavior toward those groups.  Emotions that people feel toward the groups they belong to should be equally likely to predict in-group relevant behaviors.  When social psychologists explain such behaviors as affiliating with other group members, displaying in-group symbols, valuing in-group lives over the lives of others, and even sacrificing one’s own life for the group, they usually turn to the concept of identification.  In on-going work in our lab, we are investigating the emotions that accompany in-group identification, and whether in-group directed emotions are better predictors of in-group relevant behavior than the more general concept of identification.   

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